Excel Hygiene

Excel Hygiene is a new start-up enterprise, specialized in the management and disposal of bio-medical waste. The company has been established by a team of biotechnologists with core technical competence in the degradation of organic material using microbes especially naturally occurring bacteria. All health care facilities and institutions need to manage their medical wastes, which include body parts, metallic and plastic disposable parts and aids, as well as waste of both organic and inorganic origins.Large hospitals have incineration and compacting facilities of their own, but clinics and small nursing homes lack economies of scale to operate their own waste management facilities. Though bio-medical waste management and disposal is the intended core of the enterprise, medical institutions expect comprehensive hygiene services comprising removal of pathogenic loads, rodent, crawler, and vector control as well. The new company will therefore have to provide these ancillary services a s well.Personnel training and efficient logistics are the keys to success in this business. Hospitals and clinics will have no hesitation in terminating contracts if waste if not removed in time, or if their infections rates soar. Waste must be compacted and incinerated only in designated areas, and must be collated at these sites before degradation is advanced. Therefore the new company has decided to limit its operations to an area of about one thousand square kilometers.The present market for hygiene services in this area has been estimated to be just about $50 million, but a three fold increase is expected in the next 5 years, as environmental consciousness spreads. Biotechnology is a relatively new field and the number of players is limited in this segment. The business offers superior growth and profit potentials for new start up companies . This kind of enterprise has high social values as well.

David Suzuki

David Suzuki is the co- founder of the David Suzuki Foundation. He is an international award winning scientist. He’s just not a scientist; he’s also an environmentalist, a professor and a broadcaster. He is very famous for his programs that talks about the complexities of the natural science. He is known for expertise in genetics. David Suzuki wasn’t always interested in the environment. His father, Kaoru Carr Suzuki’s work got him interested and sensitized to nature. David Suzuki moved to London, Ontario with his family when he was in high school.He attended London Central Secondary School and was the Student Council president with the most votes combined for his last year there. After high school, he attended Amherst College and graduated in 1958 with diploma in Biology. He also got a Ph. D. in Zoology in 1961 from the University of Chicago. After getting his Ph. D. he has been a professor in the University of British Columbia for almost 40 years. Goals and Location: David Suzuki has his own organization called the David Suzuki Foundation. They think of very good projects to do to help save the environment and make it better.Their mission is to help protect the diversity of nature and our quality of life for the future. Their main goal is to help and improve the Earth! They help the Earth by doing things such as: Protecting the Climate, Transforming the Economy, Protecting nature, reconnecting with nature and Building Community. One of the main things they advise people of all ages to do its plant trees so it helps our earth to purify air and keep it a much greener place to live in. A lot of people know about his goals to help the environment and how to get involved in it because of the books that he writes.He is very successful as an author all around the world and so are his books. Some of his books are: Looking at the Environment, Looking at the Body, A Glimpse of Canada’s Future, and Earth Time etc. David Suzuki is known as the leader in sustainable ecology. The David Suzuki Foundation is located in Toronto, Ontario. David Suzuki does most of his work in Canada but also does many of his research outside of Canada, such as the USA. Major Projects: David Suzuki and his foundation work on many different projects throughout the year.There are 2 major projects that he and his organization are working on right now, which are: Race to the Top & Trottier Energy Futures Project. Race to the top is about trying to achieve the goal to slowing down climate changing affects. Climate change affects everyone and is affecting every individual out there. The action that climate change is taking is crucial and is really harming the earth. We can slow this crucial change by taking action today. By taking action, it helps protecting our future grandchildren and avoiding unwanted impacts.The biggest way we can take action for this cause is by trying to get the federal and provincial government involved so they can let the Citizens of Canada know how important this is. The second major project David Suzuki and his foundation are working on right now is the Trottier Energy Futures Project. This project is about how our future would be with a cleaner environment. It is trying to make Canada the leader in innovative clean-energy solutions. Canada can make this happen by developing energy systems that are secure, affordable, and free from harmful emissions and other environmental effects.This project is an effort to determine how Canada can dramatically reduce its emissions of the greenhouse gas that are the main cause of global climate change. Climate change is a very big problem because of the increased frequency of severe weather disasters has drawn attention to climate change as one of the most serious challenges facing humanity. This project will help because it will include scientific reviews of energy production and distribution opportunities available to Canada, taking in economic, social and environmental concerns. The Active Citizen:Anyone can get involved in making the Earth a better place. We can get involved by doing many things such as: Recycling Electronics, Reducing your Carbon Footprint, Connecting youth with nature and by making your workplace greener. Individually, you can recycle our electronics instead of throwing it away in landfills and harming the environment even more. One of the best places to recycle is with Think Recycle. You will be helping the David Suzuki Foundation to aid in protecting the nature and our quality of life. Recycling is cost-free and will help the David Suzuki Foundation to raise money.As a class, the best way to get involved is by connecting youth with nature. We could go to our family members, cousins and relatives and inform them about how we should protect the nature for the good of Earth. We could go to elementary schools and tell the children about how connecting them with nature is helpful for themselves and the Earth. Helping nature and spending time in nature helps kids improve their memory, problem solving skills and creativity. Kids also become physically healthier by doing this. On a School wide level, we can get involved by reducing our carbon footprint.We can do this by switching to energy efficient lighting, cutting our energy use, driving smarter, not polluting water and travelling sustainably. These are very successful ways to get involved in protecting our Earth. Successes and Failures: David Suzuki had a lot of successes but not many failures. The two most successful things he did in the past year is his book writing and making a huge change in BC. His books were sold all around the world which was telling citizens how we can protect the environment, what are we doing that’s harming our planet and many more exciting facts about nature.Citizens were doing things that would protect our planet and make it healthier. This all happened because David Suzuki’s books gave them interest in making our planet a better place. This was one of the most successful things David Suzuki did this year. He got British Columbia to reduce energy consumption by 7. 3% more than the rest of Canada. It was a very hard thing to do but it was accomplished. His organization plans to do more successful projects like this in the future. One of the things David Suzuki failed to do was to convince some people that we need the environment and our trees.The people wanted more growth to happen in a certain area without thinking of the harmful things that will happen to nature when we cut and destroy trees. David Suzuki was overall successful and barely experienced any failures. Global Citizenship: A Global Citizen is a responsible community member. David Suzuki is a Global Citizen because he always cared about nature and our environment. He has many goals that he has set to achieve in the future. He took the responsibility to take care of the environment that’s surrounding us. He made his own organization and got people involved to do what he always does.He makes books which millions of people read and also learn about how to protect our Earth. The project’s he does has been improving our environment more than ever. He is fighting against climate change, involving global warming, and its effects on the world. David Suzuki also plans to save wildlife in forests, which are losing their homes from industrial forest demolition. He is attempting to protect oceans and other bodies of water from pollution and the creatures living within it, with the help of people who are willing to save our water.David was nominated as one of the top ten â€Å"Greatest Canadians† by CBC viewers in 2004. This was because he was helping out Canadians by engaging the population of Canada to live healthier and use less resources offered by nature. He didn’t only win that award. He won lots more because he was determined to protect the diversity of Canada’s mari ne, freshwater and ecosystems. Lastly, he is one of the most amazing global citizens I know because his goal in his lifetime is to create a better planet for our generation and mostly the upcoming generations that are likely to inhabit our world.

Monetary theory Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Monetary theory - Research Paper Example Its value differs in different regions and parts of the world when compared. However, it is a common accepted and standard means of exchange by people within a boundary; that is why an individual from outside a nation will find himself with either few or more money after currency change in a foreign land that does not share similar currency. According to Leyshon and Thrift, there exist several forms of money, â€Å"namely; pre-modern money; commodity money; money of account; state money and virtue money† (3). Money exists as paper (certified currency notes), metallic coins, made of kinds of metals and credit money which is easily convertible and highly appreciated through cheques. In the past, a variety of commodities ranging from iron, gold, copper, silver, shells and animals served as a medium of exchange in various locations and times. The history of money can be traced back from the act of exchange; however, barter trade was not able to handle the complexity of life dealin gs and so had to be replaced with a common medium. Money must be easy to transport and identify, durable, difficult to duplicate, divisible and widely accepted (â€Å"the measure of money,† boj.org). Money supply in the economy: This is simply the amount of money circulating in an economy. Several methods have been put across to measure money supply in an economy. However, the measures differ from nation to nation, in time and the intention. According to Dwivedi, â€Å"(i) money supply is a stock variable and measure of money supply refers to the stock of money at of point in time; (ii) by measure of money supply is meant the measure of stock of money available to the public as a means of payments and store of value and (iii) the term ‘public’ means all economic units including household, firms and institution† (212) excluding some areas like commercial and main central banks where money is in circulation. To quantify money, various policy makers and econo mists use M0, M1, M2 and M3 methods. â€Å"M1includes money in circulation, checkable deposits and traveler’s checks while M2 adds savings deposits, time deposits held in depository information and money market mutual funds share on top of M1†( Gwartney, Stroup, Sobel, and Macpherson 266). M0 is the monetary base from which other measures build on while M3 is a broader measure including items that would be termed to be close substitutes for money. Money value is affected by its supply in the market; when its supply is limited comparing with its demand, its value is high at the time, but when unlimited in circulation, it looses its value; that is, one uses a lot of it to buy few items. Money supply is a very central issue in any nation; in most countries, it is handled by the government through central banks and treasury, other involved groups are credit unions and depository institutions among others with regard to a nation. Money supply in an economy will always affec t interest rates; with increase in supply, the GDP increases too in the short run while price level in the long run, otherwise they both decrease in the same manner respectively. Money supply is important to GDP calculation and its increase bids bond prices up as it slows down the interest rate to affect investments which in turn influences total output in an economy. Suppose money supply generates faster than real output, inflation tends

DO STATES EMLPOY AID AS A TOOL OF FOREIGN POLICY DRAW UPON TWO Essay

DO STATES EMLPOY AID AS A TOOL OF FOREIGN POLICY DRAW UPON TWO EXAMPLES - Essay Example First, it must set its foreign agendas, which are the issues and challenges core to a government and its citizens’ well being (Kahler, 1998). Second, the appropriate policies have to be formulated, debated, voted and legalized/enacted. Third, the policies are adopted then implemented. Finally, the implementation and completion of these policies are evaluated and recommendations made for any practicable changes (Kahler, 1998). Foreign policies are quite unlike domestic policies that involve a lot of people and agencies. Normally, the head of states/governments (presidents and prime ministers) serve as the senior most diplomats for countries. Among the tools employed in foreign policy are diplomacy, foreign aid and military force. Diplomacy entails dealing with nations via discussions, negotiations, diplomatic messages and public statements on a variety of issues. On the other hand, foreign aid involves states assisting one another monetarily and materially so that they achieve their goals, in the process helping in improving their relations. The three common types of foreign aid used as foreign policy tools are military, economic development and humanitarian aid (Kahler, 1998). While military aid involves donating or trading in military equipment and technology to improve the military power of a given state or region of interest to the donor country, economic development aid is in the form of money or equipment loans, grants and donations to boost other states’ economy (Sogge, 2002). This paper explores the idea that foreign aid is a tool for foreign policy, citing two cases in which a state uses aid to promote its interests. Foreign Aid in US Foreign Policy The United States is one of the industrial, political and economic superpowers to whom foreign aid is an essential and integral part of foreign policy. There are several types of foreign aid that the United States regularly disburses to other countries. These categories of aid are disaster and humanitarian aid, military and security aid, and economic development aid. Among these types of foreign aid, the economic development aid accounts for approximately 60% of the total aid while the military and security assistance and the disaster and humanitarian relief account for 25% and 15% respectively. There are several reasons for which the United States extends foreign aid to its developing and strategic partners. For instance, U.S. foreign aid is given for development purposes and for humanitarian assistance in cases of emergencies/disasters. Having started giving foreign aid to developing nations in 1946, just after World War I, the United States’ foreign aid now runs into billions of dollars, making it one of the most controversial and debated tool of US foreign policy. The US and other Western nations learned about and started practicing foreign aid after the World War I after most of the destroyed countries such as Germany failed to effectively reconstruct their ec onomy and government. These devastated countries sought and received help from other states. After the First World War, the United Sates donated a whooping $12 billion dollars to Europe for government and economic reconstruction after which the US Congress then passed the European Recovery Plan (ERP), also referred to as the Marshall Plan after the Secretary of State George C. Marshall. This plan proposed the disbursement of another $13 billion in the five years following the $12

Analysis of TOGAF to either DoDAF or FEAF Research Paper

Analysis of TOGAF to either DoDAF or FEAF - Research Paper Example These components are further implemented by the various widely used EA frameworks in organizations among which FEAF, TOGAF and ZACHMAN are prime examples (Bente, Bombosch & Langade, 2012). This study deals with the analysis of two vital EA frameworks i.e. FEAF and TOGAF. Similarity amid FEAF and TOGAF Both The Open Group Architectural Framework (TOGAF) and the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF) frameworks are framed with the intention to enhance the architectural efficiency of companies which would further enable efficient execution of organizational strategies. Another similarity between the two frameworks is that both of them share common EA features and terms within each other. Application of these two frameworks with certain similar concepts of EA will further ensure that there is an agreement among the decision makers in any business organization with regard to dealing with the objectives, requirements as well as processes of the business with the help of advanced technologies. Additionally, these similar EA features in the two frameworks would further assure that decisions related to the investments on technology in any business are taken efficiently. It has been noted that inefficient decision making in this aspect is viewed to harm various the objectives and priorities of organizations (TCRP, 2011). Furthermore, it has also been noted that both FEAF and TOGAF ascribed similar guidance in terms of architectural viewpoints. This aspect further addresses that both the frameworks provide similar directions to the organizations with regard to structuring their enterprise architecture (The Open Group, 2007). Moreover, it has also been analyzed that the rows of the FEAF framework more or less correlate with the rows of the matrix of the TOGAF framework. This similarity between the two frameworks further depicts that both are intended towards dividing architectural description into various crucial layers which are documented in the later stage in a more simplified manner (The Open Group, 2013). Difference between FEAF and TOGAF From the above analysis, it is apparent that both the frameworks i.e. FEAF and TOGAF share certain common features as well as targets between each other. However, it would also be vital to mention that both the frameworks (i.e. FEAF and TOGAF) are developed with diverse intentions which further depict certain inherent changes in their process of working, their ability to ascertain effective results along with their process of implementation among others. Contextually, one of the primary differences between the two frameworks is the aspect that both are controlled by different operators. The Open Group Architectural Framework (TOGAF) is operated under the framework of Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DODAF) while the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF) is developed by the Chief Information Officers (CIO) in the United States Federal Council. This difference in operational owne rship can be vindicated from the fact that FEAF is developed by the US Federal Council which maintains as well as facilitates incorporated systems of architectures within the federal agency. On the other hand, TOGAF focuses on ascertaining good and simplified principles instead of offering a set of complex architecture principles within diverse business units. Additionally, it has

Treatment of Unipolar Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Treatment of Unipolar Depression - Essay Example Overall, 5-HTP appeared to be slightly better tolerated than fluvoxamine, although the results did not reach the level of statistical significance. What personal interests and/or short or long term goals lie behind this - not strictly required for a proposal but it is usually helpful to think this through as it can help you focus [one paragraph] What aspect(s) of theory / knowledge is/are behind this What are the gaps in the research or what parallels are there in adjacent fields (ie a short literature review to set up the purpose and question) - 5-HTP has also been compared in a few studies with conventional tricyclic antidepressants (chloripramine and imipramine) - the most effective drugs for treating depression until the development of the SSRIs. The studies found 5-HTP to be at least as effective as these drugs in treating severe depression, while displaying fewer side effects. In severe cases, 5-HTP dosages as high as 1200 mg daily were used What objectives, steps, sub-questions, angles of inquiry or sections of your paper would you break your question or inquiry aim into - CCDANCTR-Studies was searched (carried out on 12/1/2005) using the following search stategy (Diagnosis = Depress* or Dysthymi* and Intervention = tryptophan or 5-htp or 5-hydroxtryptophan or Hydroxytryptophan and Intervention = Placebo). Reference lists, book chapters and conference proceedings were checked. Experts and triallists were contacted for unpublished studies Section B -Study design and method / methodology What type of study would help with your question and focus Please bold underline to identify It is OK to use "other" and briefly explain - but otherwise no explanation required here. You should read up on these if you don't know what they are, but we assume you know what the one you pick is) survey1 experiment evaluation trial case study reflective self-study academic paper2 other - please identify take advice Why / how will this design work with your question and focus - Trials were included if they were randomized, included patients with unipolar depression or dysthymia, compared preparations of 5-HTP or tryptophan with placebo, and included clinical outcomes assessed by scales assessing depressive symptoms take advice If you intend to use a particular methodology, briefly explain how it works and why you want to use it. - Eg - reflective self study, controlled trial, grounded theory, ethnography. This must be appropriate for the way you have worded your research question / inquiry. Please note that it is not essential that you have this for an undergraduate project. For an academic

Sustainability issues in providing Healthcare Services at Nicaragua Research Paper - 1

Sustainability issues in providing Healthcare Services at Nicaragua Canal Project - Research Paper Example However, the healthcare project in Nicaraguan canal and its rated issues has provoked Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility expertise to design health management program that proactively identifies its associated issues. Therefore, marketing, environmental management and human resources issues are identified within the organization Capacity Building, Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability in order to initiate and implement mitigation measures. Analysis presented in this paper is helpful in understanding sustainability and health care services in relation to Nicaraguan canal development. Further analysis in this paper uncovers the entire organization dilemma, issues and concepts or approaches used to tackle in tackling all the related issues in relation to HCSS developers, locals and Federal Government agencies. In details, the paper explores and explains the Nicaraguan environmental issues exposing out the significance of the government structure and the corporate social responsibilities and the theories generated to support the arguments. Based on international context for sustainability, capacity building and Corporate Social Responsibility the paper critically evaluates the impacts of environmental implications in relation to the Nicaraguan environmental issues as well as business growth. As Nicaraguan healthcare program experiences foundational dilemmas from different components of marketing, environmental management to human resources dilemmas, environmental or operational management dilemmas are most critical dilemma that faces the Health care services program. The organizational dilemmas are identified as the core corporate responsibilities that function against the sustainability role in a government structure or non-profitable business providing a reliable tension between environment benefits and the societal deliveries. Conversely, as the

In the novel Fugitive Pieces by Anne Michaels, how does the second Essay

In the novel Fugitive Pieces by Anne Michaels, how does the second part of the novel comment and reflect on the themes and events of the first part - Essay Example Ben’s life mirrors Jakob’s in some respects. Death is the predominant theme of the novel. At the very onset, the reader is informed of Jakob’s untimely demise in a car-accident. The events unfolded in the subsequent pages are therefore viewed through the eyes of a dead man. Thus the spectre of death looms large over the narrative. Jakob was the aural witness to the savage murder of his parents and the abduction of his beloved sister Bella. From that moment on he is haunted by the constant presence of his sister in his life. He is tormented by his abject ignorance of her fate. He reiterates his belief that the dead wield a permanent influence over the living, â€Å"It’s no metaphor to feel the influence of the dead in the world.†(Michaels, 53) Death makes its presence felt in Ben’s narrative as well. He is a child of the second generation but nevertheless he is a victim of the holocaust. His parents are living reminders of the horrors of the past and their very home is permeated with the remnants of the evil of those dark times. His situation is outlined in Jakob’s description of the mass graves in the first part, â€Å"When the prisoners were forced to dig up the mass graves, the dead entered them through their pores and were carried through their bloodstreams to their brains and heart. And through their blood into another generation.†(52) The role of history and memory in the lives of the protagonists constitutes another theme of the novel and is reiterated in the second part echoing its occurrence in the first part. Jakob and Ben are trapped in their traumatic pasts and there is no hope for fulfilment in their present lives and possibly the future as well. Jakob is repelled by history and its clinical detachment in the face of atrocity and immorality and prefers to seek recourse in the intimate confines of memory. â€Å"History is amoral: events

Prduction Planning and Scheduling Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Prduction Planning and Scheduling - Case Study Example An organization takes the advantage of planning and scheduling in various instances such as in online campaigning. In this case, an organization narrows down their targeted customers in the market in order to avoid unnecessary cost incurred during marketing and advertising to people not interested in the respective products and services. Creation of a schedule of online ads gives the organization an opportunity to take advantage of price promotions, and also set a budget. According to the Balloons Aloha case study, there are six customer jobs that need to use the helium tank in filling balloons. Therefore, there must be an effective way to sequence the jobs in order to allow a proper sequence order. In the short-term, the six jobs at the company need to have a clear planning and scheduling that allows filling of balloons in a sequential order. The Aloha’s Balloon sequencing system ensures the set six jobs are carried out in an effective manner as per schedule. Jobs are categorized based on processing time, and due dates to prevent collision during the procedure. Therefore, the company must aim at accomplishing long-terms goals by embarking on planning and

Managing Human Resource in Large Organisations Essay

Managing Human Resource in Large Organisations - Essay Example The researcher states that managing such large organizations as Boeing and Airbus with employee base ranging up to 18, 000 employees is a complex endeavor. Due to the diversity of the organisation, many employees come from different cultural and ethnic background and therefore have different personal values, which must be respected. Construction industries such as Boeing and airbus involve assembly of millions of parts. This calls for a wide variety of expertise. Some may be low as workshop attendants, cleaners, and drivers while others may be highly qualified personnel such as engineers, analysts, and quality inspectors. Each class have different needs, values, hierarchy of needs and issues to be addressed. This makes handling such a complex work base a difficult effort. Heavy construction industries require a very diverse pool of skills. This implies that the workforce will consist of old and experienced experts who have been in such industries for years. Such workers are of high v alue to any organisation. On the other hand, young, enthusiastic, and highly skilled workers are also required to inject new ideas, and introduce recent advancements in technology into the production process. Indeed, most large manufacturing industries invest heavily in developing young workforce. Most of the young generation are often employed in research facilities of such organizations. The needs, gratifications, and issues affecting these diverse groups are different and handling them increases the complexity of the human resource management problem. ... Managing and handling issues from an international perspective demands a very wide dimensional approach. Teamwork in manufacturing organizations such as Boeing and Airbus is of utmost importance. At times, the companies have to organise up to 200 work teams, which must work in harmony towards achieving the desired production goals. Organising such teams from a pool of varied professionals, different age, cultural and religious background presents a complex puzzle for human resource management. The gravity of the issue is increased by the sensitivity of the manufacturing process, which demands a synchronised approach to work (Lam, 2009). Compensation of different workers presents one of the most complex problems for large manufacturing organizations. Different expertise demand different pay grades. However, similar expertise from different nationality may require different compensation in terms of remunerations and other work benefits. Minimising compensation expenses whilst addressin g different hierarchical needs of every single employee is truly a complex task for human resource management. Despite the complexities, human resource has different methods of approach to ensure that all the staff members feel as part of the design and production process. First, human resource must understand the different patterns of personal values and gratification. Different employees must be treated differently depending on personal motivation factors. For instance, some workers may value achievement, affiliation, power, and responsibility while others may prefer promotion and growth. There are two primary types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic. Most of the employees will fall in either category and it is the role of human resource to

Efficiency tests Essay Example for Free

Efficiency tests Essay Day of the week test The day of the week efficiency test is the investigation of a particular stock market to see whether it reveals day of the week effect in volatility of returns, that is, whether stock returns in that particular stock market follow a certain pattern which is associated with what day of the week it is. Investing in the stock market is a wonderful way to make money, but it has a risk attached to it in the form of uncertainty. Stock market returns do not operate independently of the economic, political and technological environment of a country. In fact the stock market of a country is completely driven by the aforementioned environmental stimuli. However the relationship is indirect. Changes in these environmental stimuli do not directly affect the stock market. What they do directly affect is the investor mindset. The investor mindset in turn directly affects whether the stock market returns are likely to be good or bad. A bleak economic prospect for example will make the average investor wary of investing in assets. As a result he/she will stay away from investing in the stock market and as everyone, unsettled by the bleak economic prospect, follows suit, share prices, due to lack of demand, will drop drastically and, as returns hit the bottom, it will not make sense any more to invest in the stock market. In this manner, the stock market can behave very erratically as it is held hostage by hundreds of environmental stimuli the behavior of which few can predict to a certainly. This is why the day of the week test is important, because by applying it, the stock market investor can predict whether stock market returns on a particular day will be high or low. He can tweak his investment pattern accordingly. The stock market is highly volatile and it has been explained above what accounts for this volatility. As mentioned before, this volatility gives rise to substantial risks which give the investor second thoughts about investing in the stock market. However, this means that if the element of risk were to be eliminated to some extent, then that would make the stock market the original Aladin’s lamp as far as making money is concerned. Therefore every investor is always looking for ways to eliminate risk. The way the investor tries to eliminate risk to some extent, or to minimize it, is to find a way to predict what the return of a particular stock is likely to be at a certain point of time. That is why we, as the investors, use the day of the week. If we are investing in the US equity market for example, then we apply the test to find out whether the market has a presence of the day of the week effect in it. If so, we invest only on those days on which the return of the stock we are investing in is likely to be high. In other words, we use the day of the week test to maximize the returns and minimize the risks of our portfolio. The question as to whether we benefit from this test has already been answered. We most certainly do as otherwise we wouldn’t be able to predict how the market is going to behave on certain days and as a result our investment decisions would be very risky indeed. So we do benefit from applying the day of the week test. But how do we benefit from it? We benefit from it because the day of the week test allows us to detect whether there is an element of seasonality in stock returns of our portfolio. As soon as we have detected seasonality, that is, returns are high or low depending what time period it is, we have immediately minimized the investment risk. An equity market for example which boasts the presence of the day of the week effect in it will tell us that returns on Mondays will be significantly lower than they are on other days of the week. Under the circumstances, the decision as when to buy stock and when to sell is not so difficult any more. In the aforementioned equity market, we should obviously stay away from making any stock purchases on any other day than Monday because the day of the week test that we have applied to the market tells us that prices will be lowest on Mondays. Therefore, to minimize expenses, we should buy stock on Mondays. By the same reasoning, when the time comes to unload the portfolio, we should obviously do the selling on any day of the week other than Monday, because in the six days other than Monday, prices will be higher, which translate into higher returns for us investors. So clearly the benefits from applying the day of the week test are substantial. They all center around the ability of the day of the week test to introduce an element of regularity into the midst of what on first sight seems unconquerable chaos. This test tells us there is a day of the week regularity functioning in the equity market and that if we invest accordingly, we shall have maximized our returns and minimized the associated risks. End of month test This is a test that seeks to establish the presence of a calendar anomaly in the behavior of stock market returns whereby returns are higher over a time period beginning with the last trading day of the current month and continuing over the first five days of the next month. The importance of this test is in taking advantage of the fact that stock returns are not completely volatile, that they do have a certain pattern hidden deep under the apparently wildly fluctuating numbers. This directly contradicts the efficient market hypothesis which states that any information, whether public and private, that is available to the investors, has already been taken into account in stock pricing, therefore no single investor is in a position to take advantage of the market. According to the efficient market hypothesis, risk is the same for all investors. However it has been recently discovered that there is a end-of-month or turn-of-the-month effect when stock returns are shown to be consistently higher on the last trading day of a month and over the first five days of the following month. This probably happens because during this time period the general level of liquidity goes up as a result of settling liabilities so that the investor has more cash with which to play around in the stock market. As has been mentioned before, the performance of the stock market is a direct function of the general mindset of the investing public. If the investing public are in a good mood, then the market will perform well. If they are in a bad mood, the market will perform badly. These mood swings on the part of the general investor are a direct function of the macroeconomic news items which they are exposed to though the different media. Therefore the timing of the release of these macroeconomic news items is an important factor in determining how the stock market will perform afterwards. Usually these news items are released during the first few days of a particular month. Stock market returns have been shown to maintain an upbeat trend as time approaches the scheduled release of macroeconomic news. That is why end-of-month testing is important because it shows the existence of calendar anomalies in stock returns brought about by scheduled release of macroeconomic news items. That is also the reason why we use this test. By using this test, we can detect the presence of calendar anomalies in the stock in which we are investing and take advantage of it to make capital gains. By using this test, we prove that the efficient market hypothesis is by no means the last word in the world of finance, that the risk inherent in investing in a particular stock is by no means the same and a test that gives us the ability to predict risk is a worthwhile exercise by any standards. As can be seen from above, we can benefit from the day of the month effect. The benefit to be gained from this test is inarguable inasmuch as we have the ability to minimize systematic risk inherent in any investment decision. According to the risk-return relationship, the risk in investing in a particular stock has two components. One is the unsystematic risk and the other is the systematic risk. Investors do not worry about the unsystematic part as it can be eliminated by means of diversification. Investors put their money in a wide variety of financial instruments so that even if one company is performing not so well thus dragging down its share performance as well, there are other companies in which the same investor holds shares and which is performing well thus canceling the negative effect of the under-performing company. It is highly improbable that all the companies will be underperforming at the same time. What is more probable is that one will outperform the other thus eliminating the unsystematic risk. However it is well nigh impossible to eliminate or to even reduce the systematic risk which affects entire market to the same extent so that no amount of diversification will cushion the effect of a high systematic risk. However that is according to the traditional finance theory. According to the new theory whereby there is a end of the month effect in every stock market, systematic risk is definitely lower in the last trading day of the month and in the first few days of the next month. So the benefit we get from this test is that we can predict a little better how the systematic risk is likely to be at what point in time in the month. Moving average As has been mentioned before, stock prices can fluctuate significantly over a certain period of time. If these prices are charted on a graph, then the trend line will zigzag substantially, making it difficult for us to evaluate whether a particular stock is underperforming or otherwise. Moving average is a technical analysis tool which allows us to smooth out these fluctuations, so that there is a consistent trend line which can serve as benchmark for the evaluation of stock performance. Moving average is a very important technical analysis tool. Inasmuch as it enables us to impose order upon chaos by creating a consistent trend of the performance of a particular stock, its importance can hardly be overemphasized. If the returns of a particular stock were to be presented in the form of a scatter plot, then on first sight it would appear as white noise. It would be impossible to make head or tail of this extremely chaotic scatter plot. However if one were to apply the moving average technical analysis tool, the widely scattered points would give in to a rising or declining trend line which could then indicate whether a particular stock is performing below that trend line or above. In this respect, moving average is a very important indicator of stock market returns. Before we make any investment decisions in respect of the stock market, it is obviously important for us to find out which stocks are performing above expectations and which stocks are performing below. Moving average allows us to make that determination and that is why we use this tool. The problem that every stock market investor faces is that the returns on the face of it seem to be impossible to predict. Charted on a scatter plot, as mentioned before, the returns are all over the place. That would not be the case however once we apply the moving average tool to these returns. Once the moving average technical analysis has been applied, it would appear that the returns conform to a predictably progressing trend line. And that is why we use the moving average technical analysis, to introduce an element of predictability into an area which would otherwise seem impossible to predict in any way. We certainly benefit from using the moving average analysis as it allows us to determine whether a stock at a particular point of time is performing below the trend line or above. This would enable us to determine when to buy and sell. When to buy and sell is the toughest decision that a stock market investor faces. Obviously an investor would like to buy a stock when the price is at its lowest and would like to sell when the price at its highest. But how does an investor know when the price has bottomed out so that he should buy and when it has topped out so that she should sell? These points the investor must determine and the benefit of using the moving average technical analysis lies in the fact that it allows the investor to determine those points. An additional benefit of the moving average analysis is that it can be calculated both short-term and long-term. A short term moving average can be defined as a 15-day moving average while a long-term moving average can be defined as a 50-day moving average. Thus there are two trend lines and when the short-term trend line moves below the long-term, the stock is on a downward momentum and it is time to sell. Conversely, when the short-term trend line is passing above the long-term, the stock is on an upward momentum and it is time to buy. In this way the moving average technical analysis allows the investor to decide when to buy and when to sell a particular stock. Correlation Correlation allows us to test whether there is any relationship between two variables and if there is a relationship, whether the relationship is positive or it is negative. For example, a correlation of +1 indicates a positive relationship exists between two variables. A correlation of -1 indicates that the relationship between two variables is negative. When the relationship is positive, it indicates that the two variables move in the same direction and when the relationship is negative, it indicates that the two variables move in opposite directions. Correlation is an important indicator of the future behavior of a particular variable in relation to another variable. It allows us to determine what other variables affect the performance of the variable of interest and to what extent. Once we have correlation figures quantifying the relationship between the variable of interest and other variables, we can predict how the variable of interest will change when the other related variables change. Inasmuch as correlation allows us to reduce uncertainty by enabling us to enhance predictability, it is an important indicator. We use it for example when we are trying to decide whether or not to invest in a particular stock market. As has been mentioned before, the performance of a stock market is affected by a wide variety of factors. The most prominent environmental stimuli are the economic, sociological, political and technological changes taking place both nationally and internationally. It is important to know therefore to what extent these stimuli affect the performance of a particular stock market. Correlation allows us to determine that extent. By applying correlation, we can find out how a certain change in the economy is likely to affect the stock market performance of that country. We come to know about these changes in the form of microeconomic news items which can be categorized based on their content. If we already have the correlation figures for these categories of news items, then as soon as they are announced, we can reasonably expect to be able to apply the correlation statistics to assess how the news items are likely to affect the performance of the stock market we are interested in. This reduces risk to a substantial extent. Risk reduction is the most important consideration in the mind of an investor. For this reason, we use the correlation statistic. We do benefit from the use of correlation inasmuch as it gives us a window into the future regarding the performance of particular stock market. An example of a benefit would be an US investor considering investing in one of the Arab stock markets. In assessing whether it would be a good idea or not to go ahead with the investment, the investor would find use of correlation of immense value. The investor would have to collect a great deal of knowledge connected to the economic, sociological, political and technological scenarios of the Arab country and determine by means of correlation how the different environmental factors are correlated to the portfolio performance in that stock market. Once that is done, he or she would be in a position to foresee how the different changes in the Arab country would affect the performance of the stock market in that country. This would enable the investor to buy and sell at the right time. As has been mentioned before, there are also international forces at work which will affect stock market performance in the Arab country. In this respect, what the investor can do is to run correlation tests between the Arab stock market and the US stock market to see how the two markets are related. In this respect, the two markets would be two variables which the correlation test will examine to find out whether any relationship exists between the two variables and if so, if the relationship is positive or whether it is negative. If the relationship is a positive one, then whenever the US market is performing well, the Arab market can also be expected to perform well and vice versa. Clearly this is of immense value to the investor as it allows him to pick the time as to when he should invest in the Arab stock market. That is the benefit. Descriptive Statistics So far the discussion has focused on predicting the future performance of the stock market. Now it’s time to focus on assessing the current performance of the stock market. That is what the descriptive statistics are for. Descriptive statistics such as the mean and the standard deviation and the normal distribution help us evaluate the existing performance of a particular stock market. Descriptive statistics are very important because they quantify the performance of the stock market. The most widely used descriptive statistic is the mean. We can calculate the mean stock return by calculating the average of several stock returns from past time periods. This tells us the return we are likely to get if we invest in that stock. However the mean does not take into account the risk that comes associated with investing in stock. As has been mentioned before, the stock market is a wonderful way to make money but every rose has it thorn and that thorn in this case is the risk. Stock returns are affected by so many variables both internal and external to the company that it is impossible to take into account all of them. This is where risk springs from. Because there are so many forces at work playing sixes and sevens with stock market returns, wild fluctuations are a necessary evil for the stock market investor. However even here, descriptive statistics can help by introducing order into chaos. The descriptive statistic in question is the standard deviation. Because stock returns fluctuate extensively, they are scarcely at the mean. Sometimes they are above the mean and sometimes they are below. Standard deviation tells us the percentage of returns which will deviate from the mean to a certain extent. Most stock returns conform to the normal distribution, that is, most of the returns are clustered around the mean return. 66% of the observations fall within one standard deviation away from the mean. 95% of the observations fall within two standard deviations away from the mean. And 99% of the observations fall within three standard deviations away from the mean. Inasmuch as stock market returns, given a sufficiently large sample size, follow the normal distribution, descriptive statistics are very important as they enable the formation of the normal distribution. This facilitates investment decisions. Descriptive statistics also come into play when determining the risk-return relationship. Risk is a prime consideration in any investor’s mindset. Investment in the stock market is meaningless unless a way can be found to minimize the influence of risk. To complicate matters further, there are two categories of risk: systematic risk and unsystematic risk. There is hardly anything the investor can do about the systematic risk. It affects all the stocks present to an equal extent. An example of a systematic risk is when there is a sudden political eruption. The political turmoil will have a negative effect in all areas of the business sector. Therefore even if the investor is holding a portfolio of stocks, it will be of little avail. The other element of risk however, the unsystematic risk, is more manageable. It means not putting all eggs in one basket. Managing a portfolio of stocks is key to eliminating or reducing unsystematic risk. An investor who has invested in a portfolio of stocks will reap more than an investor who has invested in only one stock. This is for the simple reason that external environmental stimuli do not hit all industries of the business sector to the same extent. If there is a technological change for example, some industries will benefit more and some less. Therefore the wise investor will invest in those industries which benefit more as a result of the technological change. Alongside the technological change, there will be other changes, economic or political or sociological, which will have a negative impact on some of the industries. As a result the stock returns in those industries will take a nosedive. However an investor who is maintaining a portfolio of a wide variety of stocks will not be hit adversely as he will have stocks in that portfolio of his which were immune to the economic or political or sociological change in question. In this manner the unsystematic part of the risk has been eliminated. The stocks present in a portfolio will be negatively correlated. That is, if one stock goes down in terms of returns, then another will go up. Thus the investor is well protected. However he is by no means protected from the systematic risk which no amount of diversification can eliminate. However all is not lost because descriptive statistics are there to help the investor. He already knows from the central limit theorem that most stock returns conform to the normal distribution. Once that is known, the investor can make an accurate prediction as to where the stock returns are likely to fall. This substantially reduces systematic risk. As mentioned before, there are some exceptions in terms of stock market returns which do not strictly follow the normal distribution pattern. These returns follow a different probability distribution. The use of kurtosis and skewness can help to identify that particular category of probability distribution. Determining which probability distribution a particular stock market conforms to, in which the use of descriptive statistics is key, is vital for picking the optimum portfolio. An investor would obviously want to invest in only those stocks the returns of which stick most closely to the mean. What the investor can do is to collect the percentage returns of a stock for a number of time periods and calculate the mean and standard deviation of these percentages to find out whether that stock shows a high volatility or a low volatility. The intelligent investor will obviously want to pick those stocks which have low volatility because their returns will be more predictable. So what descriptive statistics are very good at making sense of historical information to the immense benefit to the investor. As has been discussed so far, the historical returns examined without the benefit of descriptive statistics will not generate a lot of information. To the naked eye, stock returns on a historical basis reveal no pattern. There is no discernible trend. Viewed through the lens of descriptive statistics however, stock market returns suddenly become very orderly and systematic. Now the investor knows which stocks to embrace and which stocks to keep away from. Now the investor knows what the optimum portfolio will be which will take into account both systematic risk and unsystematic risk and generate the highest returns.

The data protection act Essay Example for Free

The data protection act Essay When the modem is switched on, it sends out an ASCII character known as DC 1. This is the transmit enable code and is decimal 17 or 11 hex. This code is received by the computer, which knows that it is able to commence transmitting data to the modem. This is the XON condition. If there is incoming traffic, the modem sends out an ASCII DC3 character. This is the XOFF condition and is 19 in decimal (13 in hex). The computer receives this code and stops transmitting data Note:   This method is be used with a serial printer. It sends out an XOFF code when its intemal buffer is full. As it prints, it reduces the amount of characters in its buffer. When the buffer has sufficient space, it sends out a DC 1 code to the computer, which resumes the transmission of data to the printer.   The ASCII codes DC 1 and DC3 stand for Device Control 1 and Device Control 3.   This method can transmit and receive text files, since the printable ASCII set ranges from 32 to I ~ Binary files (i. e. containing machine code) contain a full range of possible numeric values. This would include the values for the DC 1 and DC3 signals, which means that XON/XOFF is not suitable for transmitting and receiving binary files. RS232 Pins A summary of the uses of the main pins on a computers serial port is shown in the following table.   DTR Data Terminal ready The computer informs the modem that it is powered up and ready to be active, by switching this pin to an ON state. Most modems require to receive this signal before they will operate   DSR (Data Set Ready) The modem informs the computer that it is powered up and ready to be active, by switching this pin to an ON state. Most computer ports require this signal before they will operate CTS (Clear to Send) The modem informs the computer that it is able to accept data for transmission, by switching this pin to an ON state. The computer will not send out data while this pin is OFF   RTS (Ready to Send) The computer informs the modem that it wishes to give it data for transmission, by switching by switching this pin to an ON state The modem responds by switching its CTS line ON unless its memory buffer is full, or it is receiving incoming data.   TXD (Transmit Data) Carries the data from the computer to the modems RXD pin, to transmit data. Carries the data from the modem to the computers RXD pin, to receive data.   RXD (Receive Data) Receives the data from the modems TXD pin, to receive incoming data. Or Receives the data from the computers TXD pin, to send outgoing data.   DCD Data Carrier detect Used by the computer to determine whether the modem has an incoming carrier (i. e. whether the line is idle or not). Some communications packages must detect a DCD signal before they will carry on. This signal can be brought from the modem or can be provided locally by a wraparound. This connects the computers DCD pin to the computers DTR pin to simulate an idle condition.   RI (Ring Indicator) This pin could be used by an auto-answer modem. Its value is raised high when the phone rings. The modem informs the DTE via this change in the RI line and the DTE responds by setting its DTR line high. The modem then answers the call and data is passed from the telephone line to the DTE. * SG (Signal Ground) This pin is used as the reference for all other signal voltages. So, if a pin swings +15 it means that the pin is a 15 volts higher than the voltage on SG. This pin should not be confused with electric earth or Frame Ground (FG). Error Detection Modem communication over the normal telephone network is always prone to losses due to poor line conditions. As transmission rates become faster, the losses are increased. If an interference pulse occurred on a line a 28,800bps system, the transmission would be affected 24 times more badly than a 1,200bps system, since 24 times more data will have been transferred during that time. Serious attention needs to be paid to detecting and correcting such errors. The parity bit system described earlier is only a rudimentary check and only applies to ASCII files. Since most files are not plain ASCII, they will require to use all eight bits of the byte and there will be no parity bit. CRC Checking Data is transmitted in blocks or packets with a checksum created using the CRC (Cyclic Redundancy) method. When the data is compiled into a block prior to transmission, a mathematical formula using polynomial codes) is applied to the data to produce a check number that is unique to the data in the block. These check digits are then transmitted along with the data. The receiver stores the incoming block of data in a buffer for examination. The same formula is applied to the data in the buffer d it should produce the same answer as that stored in the check bytes. If the computed CRC figure accords with the stored CRC figure, the data in the buffer is fit to be passed on and an ACK signal is returned to the transmitting end to acknowledge the receipt of a block in good condition. If there has been any corruption of the data in the block, or even any corruption of the check bytes, then the formula produce answers that do not match. In this case, the device will request that the block of data be retransmitted This is done by returning a NAK signal to the transmitting end. A number of different block transmission techniques and error detection methods are in common use they are referred to as File Transfer Protocols and include: XModem XModem sends a 128 byte block of data plus one checksum byte constituted from the sum of all the ASCII codes the block. It then waits for an acknowledgement that it has been received. The waiting time reduces the average data transfer average. All errors are given ten retries before abandoning the file transfer. It also has a ten-second timeout; it sends a NAK signal if has not received any incoming signal after a ten second wait. A variation known as Xmodem/CRC sends the same 128 byte block but sends two CRC bytes. This increases the redundant bytes to be transmitted but it improves the reliability of the system and is used in preference to Xmodem where it is available. Kermit Kermit is a long established system used with mini-computers and mainframes as well as PCs. It also uses a 128 block and it provides a header with control information. Although it is widely available and reliable, it is a slow method. It is probably best used with noisy lines. Ymodem This method still uses 128 byte chunks but it sends eight of these chunks before sending a two-byte CRC code that covers the entire 1024 data bytes. The method also pads out the data block until it is exactly 1024 bytes. This is fast since most of the transmission is made up of real data and there is only two bytes of redundant information. However, on a noisy line, corruption of a single bit results in the entire 1024+2 bytes being re-sent. YModem is faster than XModem on good lines but worse on noisy lines. It also allows multiple files to be transferred in the one operation. The user selects the group of files to be transferred and the system sends them all during the one long operation. This is sometimes referred to as Ymodem/Batch. Zmodem The above systems send their block and then wait for an ACK or a NAK from the receiving end before sending another block. They are working in half-duplex mode, resulting in wasted waiting time. Many modem methods do not wait for a response between sending blocks. Using a full duplex system, it is still able to receive the ACKs and NAKs when they arrive but further transmissions can be undertaken in the meantime. When an ACK arrives it knows that a particular block has been received successfully, while an incoming NAK indicates an unsuccessful transmission of a block. The system keeps track by using a windowing system. Each outgoing packet is given a packet number along with the transmission. The incoming ACK or NAK will also have a packet number attached. In the event of a NAK the system knows which packet to re-transmit. The difference between the packet currently being sent and the most recent incoming ACK or NAK is known as the window. Since a single byte can contain 256 different numbers, there is a limit to the range of available packet numbers and older numbers are reused after they have accomplished a successful transmission. This means that the window covers a small range of the available numbers and is always changing. This gives the name sliding windows protocol; it is also implemented in the Sliding Windows Kermit and Xmodem systems. Xmodem, Ymodem and Kermit are used at speeds below 96,00bps. V42 is used at higher speeds and is implement in a ROM chip in the modem. The V42 standard encompasses the MNP 4 proprietary standard developed by Microcom. It is likely that future extensions of the V42 standard will move away from MNP 4 in favour of LAP-M (Link Access Protocol for Modems) scheme as already recommended by CCITT. The MNP 5 standard combines the MNP 4 error correction facilities with data compression. Like MNP 4 it is most commonly implemented in hardware although some communication packages implement it in software. Standards. Created by CCITT, The International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee, working under the ITU (International Telecommunications Union) which is organised by the United Nations. These standards are divided into a number of groups, including:   V-series, dealing with telephone circuits   X-series, dealing with data networks 0-series, dealing with digital networks (digital exchanges, multiplexing, PCM, etc. )   I-series, dealing with ISDN (see later) V Standards There is a wide range of definitions and the most common ones are shown in the table. The V standards get their name from the first letter of the word vitesse, the French for speed although not all V standards are concerned with transmission rate. V24, for example, specifies the serial port standard and V42 and V42bis cover error correction. The bis added to a V number means that it is the second version of the standard. Dataflex, a large UK modem manufacturer, produces VFC models, also known V. Fast Class models, working at 28,800bps. These were introduced before the ratification of the V34 standard and there are some handshaking differences between their specifications. V. Fast modems can communicate with other VFC models at the top rate but with lA ~ ~t, ~k~1t lflO/ ~ V3 5 models, they can only communicate at 14,400 bps in about 10% of cases Modem Standards Specification Operation Circuit Max Bit Rate Modulation Technique Bell 103 Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 300 Frequency Shift Keying V. 21 Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 300 Bell 202 Half Duplex Two Wire Switched 1,200 Conditioned Lease 1,800 Bell 201 Half Duplex Two Wire Switched 2,400 V. 26ter Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 2,400 Bell 212 Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 1,200 Phase Shift Keying V. 22bis Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 2,400 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying V. 27 Full Duplex Four Wire Leased 4,800 Half Duplex Two Wire Switched 4,800 V. 29 Full Duplex Four Wire Leased 9,600 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Half Duplex Two Wire Switched 9,600 V. 32bis Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 14,400 V. 34 Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 28,800 Bell 103 Full Duplex Two Wire Switched 28,800 V. 42 V42bis Data Comp V90 56,600 Even Parity The sending device counts the number of one bits in the character to be Panty Bit transmitted. If the number of these data bits is even, as in the top diagram, the parity bit is set to zero. If the number of one bits is odd, as in the lower diagram, 1001 1 10 the parity bit is set to one. Thus the total number of ones in the byte will Parity Bit always be even, no matter how many ones are in the character being transmitted0100101 If any of the data bits or parity bits is accidentally altered during transmission, the receiving device can detect the problem by counting the number of bits. If the total is not an even number, there has been corruption of the data. This provides an elementary check for data errors. Odd Parity Here, the sending device counts the number of one bits in the byte to be transmitted. If the number of these data bits is even, as in the top diagram, the parity bit is set to one. If the number of one bits is already odd, as in the lower diagram, the parity bit is set to zero. In this way, the total number of ones1 in the group is always maintained at an odd value. Note Parity checking is a useful facility but it is not foolproof. For example, two bits in a byte both being altered from zero to one would produce a correct parity check although the data in the byte had been corrupted. In practice, larger blocks of data are examined for corruption (see section later on Error Detection).

Genesis Of Army Air Defence History Essay

Genesis Of Army Air Defence History Essay What happened in Kuwait Iraq necessitates a review of the attitude towards the army air defence and the countrys entire AD systemà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. When we ask ourselves, did it work in Iraq, we have the answer, mostly it did not. Russian Minister of Defence Yazov NATO defines air defence as all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action. They include ground and air based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures. It may be to protect naval, ground and air forces wherever they are. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be homeland defence. NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare  [2]  . Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting potentially any projectile in flight. In some countries, such as Britain and Germany in World War II, the Soviet Union and NATOs European Command, ground based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. Nevertheless, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence including military facilities, forces in the field, wherever they ar e, invariably deploy their own air defence capability generally referred to as Army Air Defence. A surface based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent. This is the central idea of this article. THE EVOLUTION There are two things that make Air Defence (AD) necessary something to defend and an airborne threat. The threat from air existed earlier than the airplane. There existed a concept of air defence much before the Write Brothers flew the first aircraft in 1903. In August 1861, an American Aeronaut while on his balloon, reported the first anti aircraft fire  [3]  . This was one of the pioneering attempts in active air defence. The air defence artillery (ADA) began its evolution, when Col RP Davidson of USA built the first automatic AD weapon around 1909  [4]  . However, very little work was done in the field of AD Doctrine, as the military leaders were yet to realize the importance of air defence. The substantial air threat encountered in World War I triggered the development of dedicated ADA. In 1914, when the Allied air attacks on Germany became more persistent, the Germans exploited this new weaponry and called it Flugzug Abwehr Kanomen or Flak  [5]  . Sound location and search lights were the main means of surveillance. The establishment of London Air Defence Area (LADA) in July 1917, was pivotal as it was the first step towards centralization integration of assets like FF units, AA Gun Batteries Search Light Batteries into one entity. At the end of World War I, to facilitate quick demobilization, the AD elements of great powers were broken up. During the inter-war period with the evolution of AF, to control Englands airspace Air Defence Great Britain (ADGB) was formed in 1925. This was the first time AF was integrated for the AD which had two distinct elements: Royal AF Bombing Formations and the Fighting Area. Fighting Area was made up of ten sectors under GOC Ground Troops who would control all ground base elements of AD  [6]  . The Garrison Artillery was also abolished and its AD units were transferred to Field Artillery. In 1930s the development of radars brought about another renaissance for the AD and fostered induction of surveillance radars and better guns. The Abyssinian Crisis in October 1935 saw the first overseas deployment of AD, when the 1st AD Brigade was deployed in Egypt to protect the English against Italian attacks. The Ground Commander continued to be in charge of the local air defences as he could coordinate allocation of resources, Passive AD (PAD) measures and deception. Procedural Air Control measures were conceived by the Japanese after the US Doolittle Raids on Japan in 1942  [7]  . However, at no time were the interceptors and ADA placed under a single commander  [8]  . The Japanese defeat through air power is one classic example of the enormous price a nation had for inadequacies and poor air defences. It was Japanese air threat in SE Asia during the Second World War which forced British Government to raise AD units in India. Thus the history of AD Artillery in India began 1939 onwards when a few Indian troops began to be trained in the use of the 3 inch gun as part of the Anti-aircraft (AA) Batteries of Hongkong and Singapore Royal Artillery (HKSRA) and Indian Artillery. From 1941 onwards AA units and training establishments began to be raised in India.  [9]  The orgaisation of AA units and formations, though akin to artillery for command and control, evolved on the basis of gun density requirement for protection of Vulnerable Points and Areas. During the World War II, the Indian LAA Regiments were awarded for their dedication and acts of valour in the face of the enemy. At the time of partition only two AD Artillery units viz 26 LAA and 27 LAA Regiments came to India while the oldest AA Establishment the 1 Training Battery failed to survive the partition  [10]  . We have come a long way since then, graduating from ACK ACK (AA) to the Air Defence Branch of Regiment of Artillery, creation of a separate Corps of AD Artillery in 1994 and then renaming it as Corps of Army Air Defence in 2005  [11]  . However, a lot of ground still remains uncovered and today in spite of having AIR DEFENCE ARTILLERY OF USA Air Defence Artillery originated from the Coast Artillery Corps which was created after the Revolutionary War to defend the US coasts against naval attack and bombardment. As the US entered World War I in 1917, Coast Artillery units were detailed as Anti Aircraft Artillery(AAA) units. Weapons for these units were procured from France (75 mm Guns) but there was no doctrine. These units entered World War II beginning with the engagement of the Japanese at Pearl Harbor. German V2 Rockets led to the development of US field missile systems. Today AAA refers to the combat group that specializes in anti-aircraft weapons (such as surface to air missiles). In the US Army, these groups are composed of mainly air defence systems such as the PATRIOT Missile System, Terminal High Altitude Air Defence(THAAD), and the Avenger Air Defense system which fires the FIM-92 Stinger missiles. The Air Defence Artillery branch descended from the Anti-Aircraft Artillery (part of the Field Artillery) into a se parate branch on 20 June 1968  [12]  . Eqpt. Corps AD/EAC DIVAD FUTURE DEVP REMARKS PAC 2 GEM (100KM/ 55KM)* AVENGER SLAMRAAM *RANGE/ ALTITUDE PAC 3 (100/ 55) STINGER MEADS THAAD (200/ 150) BSFV C-RAM LINEBACKER SLAMRAAM :Surface Launched Advance Medium Range Air to Air Missile MEADS: Medium Extended AD System BSFV: Bradley Stinger Fighting Vehicle C-RAM: Counter Rocket, Arty Mortar Division Air Defence(DIVAD) Units. These are Short Range Air Defence (SHORAD) battalions tailor made for the formations they support with each of them having about three to four batteries. Infantry, Mechanised Infantry, Armoured, Air Assault and Air Borne Divisions have their own DIVAD battalions. Non DIVAD units. These are High and Medium Air Defence(HIMAD) Battalions at both Corps and Echelons Above Corps (EAC) levels equipped with Patriot THAAD systems. The Patriot Battalions have about five batteries. Patriot is a long-range, high and medium altitude, all-weather Air Defence system to counter Tactical Ballistic Missiles(TBMs), cruise missiles and advanced air craft. The current force of 12 Patriot Bns, 13 Avenger Bns four AMD Bns is planned to be reorganized into 16 AMD Bns ( equipped with MEADS/ THAAD) nine SLAMRAAM Bns. The 32d Army Air and Missile Defense Command (AAMDC) is a one-of-a-kind theater level Army air and missile defense multi-component organization with a worldwide, 72-hour deployment mission. 32d AAMDC consists of two brigades, 11th Air Defense Artillery and 35th Air Defense Artillery; both stand ready to accomplish any mission anywhere, anytime in support of the warfighting CINC. Recent contingency deployments to Southwest Asia and an intense exercise schedule in Korea exemplify the vital role and mission that the organization plays  [13]  . The Army Air and Missile Defence Command (AAMDC) is the Armys combat organization for planning, coordinating, integrating, and executing AD operations in support of the army service component commander (ASCC), the Army forces (ARFOR) commander, the joint force land component commander (JFLCC).  [14]  A majority of air and missile defence (AMD) coordination of interest to ADA occurs between the Area Air Defence Commander (AADC) and the JFLCC in most theatres. The JFLCC integrates Army capabilities into joint air and missile defence efforts through close coordination with the AADC. When the AAMDC is in theatre, the AAMDC commander will normally be designated the DAADC and will be the principal integrator for the JFLCC to the AADC on air and missile defence. An AAMDC liaison team works closely with the AADC and his staff and the BCD (Battle Space Coordination Center) to accomplish air and missile defence integration  [15]  . THE AIR DEFENCE OF RUSSIA The first Soviet AD Units was raised with the est of 1st AAA Regt at Leningrad in 1924. The air def directorate was formed in 1932. In November 1941, motivated by increasing German raids on Moscow Leningrad, National Air Defence Forces or PVO Strany was formed and in 1948 it became a separate service  [16]  . The organisation of PVO was very peculiar as it had its separate AD air crafts. The Air Defence Forces formerly the Air Defense Troops of the Nation (Russian: à Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒ Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ Ã‚ ¹Ãƒâ€˜Ã‚ Ãƒ Ã‚ ºÃƒ Ã‚ ° à Ã… ¸Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ãƒ Ã… ¾, Voyska ProtivoVozdushnoy Oborony, Voyska PVO and formerly ProvitoVozdushnaya Oborona Strany, PVO Strany) was the air defence branch of the Soviet Armed Forces  [17]  . By 1958 separate service , AD of ground troops PVO SV was established which was responsible for AD of army assets. Operating two different ADs, PVO Strany PVO SV and also two different AFs had its inherent command control problems. So, in 1981 PVO Strany was reorga nised and its name was changed to Voyska PVO (AD Tps). The Army Air Def was made subordinate branch to Voyska PVO and was called the AD of Troops (Voyskovaya PVO). Prior to dissolution of Soviet Union, PVO was the second largest independent service of Soviet armed Forces and it consumed major share of military allocation.  [18]  On disintegration of the Soviet Union, President Yeltsin signed a new defence policy document in Aug 1998 which established a single system of military administrative division of Russian territory. This replaced the earlier military districts with six integrated strategic areas or Zones. In 1998 the AD was merged with the Air Force (VVS) and by 2003 the RVSN i.e Strategic Missile Force Army Aviation units were merged with AF. The AF is organised into six Air AD armies which are operationally under op control of military zone/district commanders. Each zone is divided into AD Districts Districts are further divided into AD Sectors . Air defence of impor tant areas is under Missile Bdes. Air surveillance and intelligence is responsibility of Radio Brigades. The overall AD system of Russian includes :- Space defence troops. AD troops (Strategic). Army AD Troops. Naval Anti Aircraft Troops. D:Documents and SettingsAdm TrgDesktopCapture456.PNG Eqpt. MISSILE BRIGADES ARMY AD TROOPS FUTURE DEVP REMARKS SA-3 PECHORA (25KM/ 15KM)* SA-6 KVADRAT/ SA- 11 GRADFLY SA-20 TRIUMF S-400(400/30) *RANGE/ ALTITUDE SA-10 GRUMBLE (200/ 90) SA -8 OSA AK/ SA-15 PANTZYR S1 SPAD (4/6) SA-12 GLADIATOR (90/ 15) SA-19 TUNGUSKA DZHIGIT(SA 16/18) SA-17 BUK M2 (42/25) $ SA-18 IGLA 2/S ANTEY 2500/ S-300 VM (200/30) $ 4 TH GENERATION SA-5 GAMMON (200/20) KS 30/ S-60/ ZU 23 @ @ GUN SYS Russian AD doctrine is defensive in nature. The anti aircraft fire is coordinated by the AD Sector and AD Missile Brigades are responsible for fire control in a specific sector. The overall AD network is completely integrated with Ranzir CP, Baikal IE systems and Polyana 4E systems  [19]  , for each level, which get inputs from AWACS through compatible integrated data transfer system. They have developed the S- 300 series S-400 series of Missiles which are Counter Missile system. The deployment of S-400 began in 2007 and is likely to be completed by 2015.  [20]  The Russian R D is now focusing on point AD systems Counter missile Systems. Russia with the help of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries is developing a comprehensive AD structure which could give depth to Russian Air space. THE AIR DEFENCE OF CHINA Armed with a formidable arsenal of nuclear weapons and rapidly maturing delivery capabilities, China has little to worry about in terms of major invasion. Since China is surrounded by potential adversaries, particularly the US Pacific Forces it deploys strong ground-based air-defenses to protect itself against sudden air attacks. The official terms for the PLAAFs AAA troops is gaoshepao bing/gaopaobing and the SAM troops is dikong daodan bing/didao bing/daodan bing. However, the PLAAF occasionally refers to its AAA troops as first artillery (yipao), and SAM troops as second artillery (erpao), which is often confused with Chinas Second Artillery Corps (erpao).  [21]   During the 1950s, the Soviets exported air defence equipment to China. But the Khrushchev-era tensions put an end to that, and over time China proceeded to reverse engineer all of these Soviet designs. On 6 February 1964, during his meeting with Dr Qian Xuesen (Father of Chinese Rocketry), Chairman Mao again expressed his views on the importance of the missile defence capability. According to Mao, missile defence capability should not be dominated by the two superpowers only, and China must also develop its own missile defence weapons, no matter how long it would take. This conversation, later known as 640 Directive, led to a missile defence system that could defend the country against nuclear-armed strategic missile attacks  [22]  . Early models SA-2 Guidelines from USSR were reverse engineered and entered service as the HQ-1 and soon after HQ-2 systems. Since the year 2000, HQ-2 remains a major cornerstone of Chinese air defenses  [23]  . In the 1960s-80s the main strategic adversary was USSR and consequently most air defenses are concentrated in the north of the country  [24]  . Chinese attempts at indigenous SAMs were somewhat poor even after an injection of Western technologies during the 1970s and 80s. In the 1990s and 2000s the focus had returned to the financial hub of Shanghai (and now Hong Kong) and the Taiwan Straits. PLAAF has upgraded its air defense (non-aircraft) capabilities which involves three of the PLAAFs branches: SAM, AAA, and radar troops. It is expending tremendous effort establishing an Integrated Air Defence System (IADS) at both the strategic (SADS) and tactical (TADS) levels.  [25]  SADS Integrates Naval, Space ABM TADS Integrates PLAAF PLA AD as explained in the figure below. The Automated Air Defense Command and Control System [IBACS] identifies targets, evaluates threats, allocates forces, and guides fighters. It also commands surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and antiaircraft artillery (AAA), and it includes tactical air defense systems (TADS) and fixed radars. A sector operations center is linked with three TADS, various air bases, AAA sites, SAM units, radars, and ground and naval units  [26]  . Eqpt. REGIONAL AD FIELD AD FUTURE DEVP REMARKS HQ 9 (90KM/ 30KM)* TOR M1 ( SA-15) HQ -15 (SUPER S-300 )(200/25) *RANGE/ ALTITUDE SA-10 GRUMBLE (200/ 90) S-300 PMU HQ -7 (FM -80) HQ 16 (SUPER TOR M1 (35/20) HQ-12 KS 1(50/ 25) HQ 64 (LY -60) HQ 17 (30/17) HQ -2 B(90/20) QW-3/ TY-90 HQ 18 (400/35) PL-9/ HQ 61 A ABM SYS MANPADS ( QW  [27]  1,2,3 HN 5) QW [emailprotected] @ 4 TH GENERATION 14.5MM/ 23 MM/ 25MM/ 35 MM/ 57 MM/ 85MM GUNS. TYPE 95 GUN MISSILE SYSTEM GUN SYSTEMS The Chinese AD Doctrine post 2006 follows an Active AD Strategy with offensive and defensive character. Its deployment follows Three Strike or San Da concept which is a three ring layered deployment which is Key Area/ Key Point centric. Overall the countrys AD posture follows a front light and rear heavy pattern with institutionalized Passive Air Defence (PAD) measures. Despite significant improvement in military C4I, Chinese ability to control sophisticated military operations still lags behind current western standards and its varied AD equipment are yet to be battle tested. PAKISTAN Since most of our discussions all these years have been Pak centric, the readers would be familiar with its AD organization and setup. However, I wish to bring out certain salient aspects which are some recent developments:- Pak AD Studies (AADS 2000) and Study by HQ 4 AD Division in Jan 2008 has led to development of CLIAD (Comprehensive Layered Integrated Air Defence) Capability. This has ushered in era of variety of SAMs which are planned to be a mix of Western (30%) and Chinese (70%) equipment to be employed as under :- Combat Zone. It would primarily consist of RBS -70, FIM-90 (Chinese) and a variety of SHORADS (Short Range Air Defence Systems). Communication Zone. Low and Medium Altitude AD Systems (LOMAD) consisting of BAMSE (Sweden) and KS 2/ LY 60 D (China). Rear Areas. HIMADS comprising LD 2000 (China) and Phalanx (US). Both these systems are also capable of tackling all forms of missile threat. It has already authorized integral AD Regiments to its Infantry Artillery Divisions and is reorganizing the existing units to absorb new equipment thereby increasing the density of AD in Combat Zone. Redefining the Mission Of Army AD. Existing Mission. To provide ground based air defence to operationally critical assets/areas in harmony with visualized land air operations, nullifying or reducing the effectiveness of hostile air attacks and surveillance Redefined Mission . Provide AD cover against Low, Med and High alt air threat to national and tri Service VAsIVPs and field formations during defensive and offensive ops In the new mission Pakistan is not only looking to cover its air defence in all the spectrums but is also seeking for a better integration between the air defence forces with the other ground forces. Integrated AD concept implies provision of terminal def to PAF bases, CZ, VAs of national imp and create cone of AD wpns in specific areas of CZ in harmony with own air-land ops in order to cause max attrition on adversarys (Indian) air force.

Masculine Identity in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Essay -- Essays

Masculine Identity in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Vern L. Bullough's article, "On Being a Male in the Middle Ages," addresses how vital it was for a man living in the middle ages to be sexually active in order to maintain a masculine identity by explaining: Quite clearly, male sexual performance was a major key to being male. It was a man's sexual organs that made him different and superior to the woman. But maleness was somewhat fragile, and it was important for a man to keep demonstrating his maleness by action and thought, especially by sexual action. It was part of his duty to keep his female partners happy and satisfied, and unless he did so, he had failed as a man. (41) If we are to use this reference to explain what constitutes maleness in the middle ages, then the question naturally arises as to how Gawain in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight retains his masculine identity while abstaining from sex. I believe the answer to this can be found by looking at the structure of the story, in which we will find that Gawain is surrounded by father figures who create a superego that requires Gawain to repress his sexual desires. At the same time, these parent figures are testing Gawain's ability to abstain from sexual intercourse to see if he is worthy of a courtly masculine title. Therefore, the only way Gawain can achieve and maintain this masculine identity is to abstain from sex. We should begin our observations into the question of how Sir Gawain's masculinity works by focusing on the Green Knight. The Green Knight, the first father figure introduced in the story, tests Gawain's masculinity. Before the Green Knight can test Gawain, though, he must prove that he is in a position to pass judgment. C... ...teilungen. 86 (1985): 482-88. Bullough, Vern L. "On Being a Male in the Middle Ages." Medieval Masculinities: Regarding Men in the Middle Ages. Medieval Cultures; 7. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1994. Freud, Sigmund. Character and Culture. 1907. New York: Crowell-Collier P, 1970. Freud, Sigmund. The Origin & Development of Psychoanalysis. 1910. New York: Henry Regnery Company, 1967. Freud, Sigmund. Sexuality and the Psychology of Love. 1905. New York: Crowell-Collier P, 1970. Hedges, Warren. Personal interview. 26 November 1996. Kinney, Clare R. "The (Dis)Embodied Hero and the Signs of Manhood in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight." Medieval Masculinities: Regarding Men in the Middle Ages. Medieval Cultures; 7. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1994. Mann, Jill. "Prince and Value in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight." Essays in Criticism. 36 (1986): 294-318. Masculine Identity in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Essay -- Essays Masculine Identity in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Vern L. Bullough's article, "On Being a Male in the Middle Ages," addresses how vital it was for a man living in the middle ages to be sexually active in order to maintain a masculine identity by explaining: Quite clearly, male sexual performance was a major key to being male. It was a man's sexual organs that made him different and superior to the woman. But maleness was somewhat fragile, and it was important for a man to keep demonstrating his maleness by action and thought, especially by sexual action. It was part of his duty to keep his female partners happy and satisfied, and unless he did so, he had failed as a man. (41) If we are to use this reference to explain what constitutes maleness in the middle ages, then the question naturally arises as to how Gawain in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight retains his masculine identity while abstaining from sex. I believe the answer to this can be found by looking at the structure of the story, in which we will find that Gawain is surrounded by father figures who create a superego that requires Gawain to repress his sexual desires. At the same time, these parent figures are testing Gawain's ability to abstain from sexual intercourse to see if he is worthy of a courtly masculine title. Therefore, the only way Gawain can achieve and maintain this masculine identity is to abstain from sex. We should begin our observations into the question of how Sir Gawain's masculinity works by focusing on the Green Knight. The Green Knight, the first father figure introduced in the story, tests Gawain's masculinity. Before the Green Knight can test Gawain, though, he must prove that he is in a position to pass judgment. C... ...teilungen. 86 (1985): 482-88. Bullough, Vern L. "On Being a Male in the Middle Ages." Medieval Masculinities: Regarding Men in the Middle Ages. Medieval Cultures; 7. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1994. Freud, Sigmund. Character and Culture. 1907. New York: Crowell-Collier P, 1970. Freud, Sigmund. The Origin & Development of Psychoanalysis. 1910. New York: Henry Regnery Company, 1967. Freud, Sigmund. Sexuality and the Psychology of Love. 1905. New York: Crowell-Collier P, 1970. Hedges, Warren. Personal interview. 26 November 1996. Kinney, Clare R. "The (Dis)Embodied Hero and the Signs of Manhood in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight." Medieval Masculinities: Regarding Men in the Middle Ages. Medieval Cultures; 7. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1994. Mann, Jill. "Prince and Value in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight." Essays in Criticism. 36 (1986): 294-318.

Grant :: essays research papers

The American Cancer Society Youth Initiative Cancer Prevention and Youth For the first time in recorded history, children are less healthy than their parents were at the same age. According to the most recent Youth Risk Behavior Survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control, youth tobacco rates are at an all time high among high school students (28.5%), only 21.4% of youth report eating five servings of fruit and vegetables daily, and only 32.2% of these youth report participation in daily physical exercise. It is now a widely accepted notion that much of the risks of cancer can be reduced through healthy behaviors and that cancer is mostly a preventable disease. In fact, research shows that nearly two-thirds of all cancers may be prevented by reducing tobacco use, increasing physical activity and changing nutrition behaviors. It is the belief of many experts that these health behaviors are ultimately learned as children and youth. The American Cancer Society is dedicated to eliminating cancer as a major health problem by preventing cancer, saving lives and diminishing suffering from cancer through research, education, advocacy and service. To achieve the goal of reducing cancer incidence and mortality, we must commit ourselves to a strategic and integrated approach to cancer prevention and influence the healthy choices that youth make while they are open to learning and change. Youth Programs at the American Cancer Society The Northwest Division of the American Cancer Society, serving Washington, Oregon, Montana, and Alaska, began to formalize its cancer prevention youth activities in 1998 through a program titled Speak Out! These programs and activities began with a primary focus on preventing and reducing tobacco use among youth and served overall approximately 450 youth and 110 adult mentors annually, the majority (85%) from Washington State. Speak Out! activities continue today and include Speak Out! Summer Summit, a week-long youth leadership and advocacy training program for high school aged youth. Youth are trained in team-building, leadership skills, planning skills and advocacy techniques to learn how to mobilize peers and communities to prevent tobacco use. In addition to Summer Summit, youth programs originally designed included 6 workshops spread out over four days. These annual workshops continue today and provide education, information and the tools to assist youth and adult leaders in their efforts to build effective youth coalitions and community partnerships to support tobacco prevention and advocacy efforts. This year (2003) we plan to add advanced-track programs and offer a total of 12 workshops.

Graphic Correlation :: Assignment

Graphic Correlation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first step toward correlating the three sections was selecting an initial standard reference section. The Morgan Creek section was chosen for this because it had, on average, a higher number of fossil occurrences for the six species that were examined. The first and last occurrences of the six species from this section (x axis) were plotted against the first and last occurrences of the same species from the White Creek section (y axis). The product was figure 1.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Figure 2 is the same graph as figure 1, but it has a best fit line through the data, called the line of correlation. The diamond shaped points are first occurrences, while the squares are last occurrences. First occurrences which plot to the right of the line of correlation indicate that this species is found in older rocks in the White Creek section than in the Morgan Creek section. An example of this is the fossil of species Kingstonia pontotocensis (diamond #4). In order to time correlate this fossil to the Morgan Creek section, the point is carried over horizontally to the line of correlation from which the appropriate x value (point in the Morgan Creek section) was found. In other words, the first occurrence of this fossil was at a point in time that correlates to 133 m from the base of the Morgan Creek section, but due to poor preservation conditions, erosion, or some other geologic phenomena, the fossil is actually found at 138 m from the base of the Morgan Creek section. When a last occurrence plots to the left of the line of correlation, this means that the fossil occurs in younger rocks in the White creek section than in the Morgan Creek section. Kingstonia pontotocensis is the example again. To correlate this to the appropriate height in the Morgan Creek section, the data point is moved horizontally to the line of correlation, and from a vertical line to the x axis one can see that the point need be adjusted from 145m to 153m in the Morgan Creek section. By using this correlation method, a theoretical section is created, by combining first and last occurrences from both sections. It is important to note that this section is not found in nature; it is simply an idea which represents what a section would look like if fossil preservation problems did not exist, and all six fossil ranges were accurately represented in the rock record.

India’s Nuclear Policy

The relationship between International Nuclear Regimes and developing nations is a matter of passionate debate. Debate is in process on certain issues like nuclear policy, on grand strategies, on basic political values etc. It is a debate with implications for our individual and collective existence and raises fundamental question about political preferences, approaches and pathways ahead. The end of World War II and use of nuclear bomb presented US with new kind of strategic dilemma. How could a potentially apocalyptic technology once discovered, permanently be kept out of the hands of competitors and in March 1963, President J. F. Kennedy warned the Americans public that 15-25 states would come to posses nuclear weapons by 1970. (Spector,Sanfrancisco,1990) Currently 09 states have successfully detonated nuclear weapons of which 05 are called Nuclear Weapon States- US, Russia, U. K, France, China and rest are India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. The prediction of President Kennedy did not come to pass is not because of lack of technological know how but rather several states that could have developed nuclear weapon program chose not to do so and signed NPT (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty) as non- nuclear weapon states. It is the most questionable treaty by International Nuclear Regime and posses direct criticism from developing nations. The discrimination is inherent in NPT as it allows some state to have nuclear weapons while others not and it is sidestepped by the inclusion of Article VI. It represents a diplomatic victory in the cold war era; success was almost destined from the outset due to simple strategic dynamic: nuclear armed states, as they didn’t want to nullify their strategic advantage by allowing competitors to acquire nuclear weapons. http://www. ippnw. org/Resourcelibrary/Treaties Brief. Pdf) CTBT banns all nuclear explosions, whether they take place in atmosphere or underground the earth. It was negotiated in Geneva between 1994 and 1996. The treaty has not come into force. Without the support from key players like US, China, DPRK, Egypt, to a lesser degree India etc. , it faces an uncertain future. India-Pak largely owing to their low-level nuclear arms race, have not signed the treaty. Though a lot of external pressure is constantly been made for it. (http://www. ocstoc. com/docs/5313084/CTBTO-Fact-Sheet-CTBT-Comprehensive-Nucl earTeat-Ban-Treaty) FMCT- Fissile Material Cut off Treaty similarly bans the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. Again it has faced similar results as of earlier treaties. There has been a nuclear non-proliferation regime since 1957, but its future is in doubt. Increasingly bilateral influences on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) programs indicate retrenchment from cooperative multilateral behavior. Restrictions on technology transfer, undertaken in efforts to prevent the creation of the unit veto-system have impelled developing countries to break out of the collaborative framework of the regime and pursue autarchic strategies. As far as norms like universality is concerned the developing countries mistrust proposed universal institutions because of disparities in power maintaing advantages for the developed states even under ostensibly universal rules. Also the developing states countering to the International Nuclear Regimes are reluctant to accept sovereignty costs without symbolic and material compensations. Brito, New York, 1983) The Nuclear suppliers states have historically been able to monopolize the supply of materials facilities and technology, because they have the leverage of monopoly suppliers, they have been able to make demands on other states that can’t be ignored. The developing states have had little of the power within the regime enjoyed by the nuclear suppliers. (Schiff, New Jersey, 1984) Along with these the other treaties and groups like outer space treaty, Sea bed treaty, London Group, Australia Group etc. hich form the international nuclear regime are known for their discriminatory policies especially for the concern of developing nations. So it becomes necessary to study their role in making of nuclear policy of India. The Indian Nuclear Program was started in mid-1940s as India gained independence from centuries of British rule, and after the use of atomic weapons against Japan by U. S. both these legacies have had an impact on Indian leaders. In 1948 the Atomic Energy Act was set up. Under it the Department of Atomic Energy was created in 1954. (http://www. world-nuclear. org/info/inf53. tml) Obduracy of Nuclear powers of the world compelled India to go nuclear. Legitimization of nuclear weapons by international community also contributed towards India going nuclear. Rising trends of intervention by the industrialized nations in the domestic affairs of developi ng nations, among which India is also one, also compelled India to direct its nuclear resources towards nuclear weapons. It was necessary for India to protect the autonomy of decision making in the developmental process in strategic matter which are inalienable democratic rights of one sixth of the global population residing in India. From the beginning, the Indian nuclear programme was ambitious, India developed facilities for mining Uranium, fabricating fuel, manufacturing heavy water, and reprocessing spent fuel etc. the program never lost sight of the military uses of atomic energy. During 1950s Homi Bhabha, the chief architect of nuclear program, was greatly interested in developing the technology for peaceful nuclear explosions, an interest that culminated ultimately in the 1974 nuclear test at Pokhran. Yet India was a champion of NAM. Even as its nuclear program was growing, India was at the forefront of several disarmament proposals including CTBT, originally suggested by Nehru in 1954. (Rajain, New Delhi, 2005) National Security considerations -During the negotiations of Nuclear NPT in 1967, India argued against the discriminatory aspect and called it nuclear colonialism. During the course of the CTBT negotiations, there was a crucial change in the Indian stance. As Salman Hyder said â€Å"We don’t believe that the acquisition of nuclear weapon is essential for our national security and we have followed a conscious decision in this regard†. This was completely in line with the traditional Indian view point of not using nuclear weapon for military uses. But on 20-June-1996 when the Indian Ambassador to the Conference on Disarmament, Arundhati Ghose, rejected the CTBT in the present form, she said that the CTBT was not in Indian security interests and our national security considerations have become a key factor in our decision making. This was a marked shift in Indian nuclear policy making. (Peimani, New Delhi, 2000) Domestic Trends- These shifts towards global disarmament and its increasingly strident criticism of any step by step measures towards nuclear disarmament influenced by domestic or internal trends on forces. Ever since the early 1960s, hawkish sections of the Indian policy making community have argued in the domestic media in favor of building a nuclear arsenal. The 1974 nuclear tests is in part, a display of their influences. The last few governments in India have been relatively weak and unstable, all formed by coalitions of various parties with different agendas. Hence there came a little slowdown in the the nuclear policy making as parties from the left-Marxist views turned out to be an obstacle dealing with the issue at international level and many other factors also pressurized the relatively weak governments. But governments managed to follow consistent opposition to any restraints on Indian nuclear and missile program. (http://www. meadv. gov. in/govt/inducld. html) In reality however, Indian leaders including Rajiv Gandhi, V. P. Singh, Atal Bihari Vajpayee- did the bare minimum to operationalize and institutionalize the nuclear option. Also the nuclear weapons are seen by political leaders essentially as a way to enhance their domestic standing and their nation’s international status. PM Indira Gandhi’s decision to give green light to 1974 PNE was domestic politics. Similarly after series of tests in May 1998, Home Minister L. K. Advani felt compelled to issue a nuclear threat to Pakistan. While China is cited as the motivation behind India’s Nuclear Weapons Programme, but that is irrelevant to most of the Indians for whom Pakistan is a bigger threat. Similar nuclear nationalism is also evident in the actions of Indian leaders at International level. The crossover of the external pressure into the domestic political arena was evident during CTBT negotiations. Both P. VNarsimha Rao and H. D. Deve Gowda governments showed unvandering support towards India’s strategic enclave (and opposition to CTBT). But on the other hand there was perception that after 1999 the doors would be closed to enhance India’s nuclear status so much so that Former PM I. K Gujral a nuclear dove admitted that had he continued in office until Sep. 999, the pressure to test would have been difficult to resist. But in spite of weak coalition government Indian hawks managed pressure imposed by the NWS and particularly USA. Also the economic liberalization program has contributed in an indirect way to the campaign. Hand in hand with the 5-10% increase in the Indian economy has been the rise of Indian elite group who insisted to make India a powerful nation. (Sidhu, NewDelhi, 2004). India has proved that it is capable of playing hard ball with the great powers and the time has come for the west especially USA to recognize India’s nuclear status. And was done also as Nuclear deal with US, Russia, France, Canada, Kazakhstan, Mongolia etc. Till December 2008 Russia’s Rosatom and French- Areva had contracted to supply Uranium. Where as January 2009- Kazatomprom signed a MoU for supplying 300tones Uranium in 2010-11. September 2009 Uranium supply agreement with Mongolia and Namibia. March 2010 Russia offered India stake in its Sakha Republic and agreed on a Joint Venture with ARMZ uranium holding. In July 2010 the Minster of Science and technology reported that India had received 868tU from France, Russia and Kazakhstan. http://www. meadv. gov. in/govt/inducld. html) Following the 2005 agreement between US and Indian heads of state on nuclear energy cooperation, UK indicated its strong support for great cooperation and France- Canada moved in similar direction. US department of commerce, the UK and Canada relaxed control on exports of technology to Indian staying under guidelines of NSG. In October 2008 US-Congress passed the bill allowing civil nuclear trade with India and also a nuclear trade agreement was signed with France. Erckel, London, 2008) As of now India has total 19 operating nuclear power reactors other than this 04 are under construction 39- are planned or firmly proposed. 05 new Nuclear Energy Parks under construction Uranium resources 54000 tones uranium is reasonably assured resources 2350 tones uranium estimated additional in situ. (http://www. world-nuclear. org/info/info80. html) All this proves India to be a big Nuclear State with accelerated growth in the nuclear sector. Also it becomes important to look into the matter that how in spite of not signing any disarmament or nuclear non-proliferation agreement and keeping a strong standing position against all the external pressures exerted by big powers, how India managed to officially mark its presences in the nuclear club. As doing various nuclear trade agreements with countries like US, France, Canada, Russia etc. in itself position India to be a nuclear weapon state which earlier these countries were not willing to agree with. The status of India as the head of developing countries against the International nuclear regime is also the matter to be studied in order understand Indian Nuclear Policy. The dramatic changes from a nuclear dove to a nuclear hawk behavior in the Indian policy making with regard to nuclear issues is another point to be studied. And the fundamental change in the domestic politics from single party government to coalition has also marked great influence in the nuclear policy making.