How Carbon-14 Is Used To Date Artifacts

In the 1950s W.F. Libby and others (University of Chicago) devised a method of estimating the age of organic material based on the decay rate of carbon-14. Carbon-14 dating can be used on objects ranging from a few hundred years old to 50,000 years old. What Is Carbon-14? Carbon-14 is produced in the atmosphere when neutrons from cosmic radiation react with nitrogen atoms: 147N 10n → 146C 11H Free carbon, including the carbon-14 produced in this reaction, can react to form carbon dioxide, a component of air. Atmospheric carbon dioxide, CO2, has a steady-state concentration of about one atom of carbon-14 per every 1012 atoms of carbon-12. Living plants and animals that eat plants (like people) take in carbon dioxide and have the same 14C/12C ratio as the atmosphere. However, when a plant or animal dies, it stops taking in carbon as food or air. The radioactive decay of the carbon that is already present starts to change the ratio of 14C/12C. By measuring how much the ratio is lowered, it is possible to make an estimate of how much time has passed since the plant or animal lived. The decay of carbon-14 is: 146C → 147N 0-1e (half-life is 5720 years) Example Problem A scrap of paper taken from the Dead Sea Scrolls was found to have a 14C/12C ratio of 0.795 times that found in plants living today. Estimate the age of the scroll. Solution The half-life of carbon-14 is known to be 5720 years.​ Radioactive decay is a first order rate process, which means the reaction proceeds according to the following equation: log10 X0/X kt / 2.30 where X0 is the quantity of radioactive material at time zero, X is the amount remaining after time t, and k is the first order rate constant, which is a characteristic of the isotope undergoing decay. Decay rates are usually expressed in terms of their half-life instead of the first order rate constant, where k 0.693 / t1/2 so for this problem: k 0.693 / 5720 years 1.21 x 10-4/year log X0 / X [(1.21 x 10-4/year] x t] / 2.30 X 0.795 X0, so log X0 / X log 1.000/0.795 log 1.26 0.100 therefore, 0.100 [(1.21 x 10-4/year) x t] / 2.30 t 1900 years

Why Did Martin Luther Start The Protestant Reformation.

Why did Martin Luther start the Protestant Reformation? After five centuries, it is easy to reduce the Protestant Reformation to a dispute over corruption in the Roman Catholic Church. But was it dissension over corruption or was it more complex than that? While corruption existed in the Church during the Renaissance, the Reformation was as much about politics, theology, and individualism, as it was about rooting out corruption. When looking at the religious values that guide human choices, why did Martin Luther break away from the Catholic Church? It would seem that patience and more open communication by both sides could have prevented the initial break between Martin Luther and the Catholic Church. This would have spared the†¦show more content†¦Luther’s study of St. Paul, through the lens of St. Augustine, changed how he felt. Luther came to understand that the righteousness of God of which Paul wrote in Romans 1:17, referred to the righteousness by which the sinner is graciously justified by faith, not the standard of righteousness by which God would judge sinners struggling to attain justification by their own efforts. This understanding transformed the troubled monk, who now found peace with God through faith. He saw his discovery or recovery of the ancient Pauline teaching as a radical departure from the views of the medieval doctors of the Catholic Church. And yet this was not so. Unbeknownst to Luther, the leading medieval commentators held the same view of the righteousness of God. Luther also came to understand faith as God’s merciful gift by which we receive the further gift of justification, in contrast to all human efforts to merit or earn God’s favor. As a way of insisting that human beings contribute nothing of their own to justification, Luther insisted that man is justified by faith alone. Luther’s discovery was more than a personal breakthrough. He was by now a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg, where he preached this understanding of the righteousness of God to students. Yet not until the question of the sale of indulgences arose in Luther’s diocese did the issue acquire legs, as the journalists say. Luther’s subsequent break with theShow MoreRelatedMartin Luther And The Protestant Reformation1029 Words   |  5 Pages The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in the 16th century that was against the Roman Catholic and its way of controlling things. Martin Luther, a reformer along with John Calvin and Henchurches VII. Luther may have had full faith in God, but he also had fear in him and his powers. They questioned the authority of the church and argued over political and religious powers in the hands of the bible. Martin Luther was the starter of it all. Martin Luther was a German monk who decided to startRead MoreMakayla Horton. Dr. Skaggs. World Civ. Ii. 1 February 2017.1182 Words   |  5 PagesTheses were written by Martin Luther in 1517. At the time of writing, Luther had devoted his life to Jesus Christ, and had become a monk. In his Theses, he expressed the idea that someone must be completely willing to commit penance in order for it to be legitimate, and Luther gave several reasons why he was critical of the sale of indulgences. He challenged the authority of the pope and other powerful positions of the church multiple times throughout his writings. Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five ThesesRead MoreCatholic Church During The Protestant Reformation1464 Words   |  6 PagesThe three areas of concern that Catholics had about the Catholic Church before the Protestant Reformation were The Plague, Abuse of the Indulgences and The Great Schism. The Plague also known as the Black Death was a disease caused by the bacterium Yersin ia pestis that circulated among wild rodents. The disease took place in the fourteenth century. 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The Reformation was caused by the Western Schism, RenaissanceRead MoreProtestant Reformation : The Black Plague2109 Words   |  9 PagesProtestant reformation Task 1A The Black Death sometimes called the black plague was devastating for the people living in Europe from 1346 to 1353 Killing around 200 million people, there were many different theories to what was happening to everyone, Most people thought that it was some kind of judgement day, killing all the people who had sinned. Until the priests and popes and important people that no one ever thought God would want dead, so eventually most people figured out that by goingRead MoreThe Reformation : How It Affect The Future?1938 Words   |  8 Pagesaspect. When we look at history only a few things really stick out in the as highlights in our brain. The Reformation is one of those things in history that protrudes out of time in significance. Its significance though like many other things is not only found in the lasting historical effect has had, but also the eternal effect it has had on people s live. So what is the Protestant Reformation? According to theopedia.com it is â€Å"Protestantism is the movement within Christianity, representing a splitRead MoreThe Protestant Reformation And The Reformation Essay1978 Words   |  8 PagesFrom the time Christianity began to the time of the Protestant Reformation, for about a millennium and a half, there was only one sect of Christianity: Catholicism. After the Protestant Reformation, however, different Christian denominations sprang up in many parts of Europe. The Protestant Reformation’s beginning is most commonly associated with Martin Luther’s beliefs and his protest of the wrongdoings of the Catholic Church. Before the Reformation, the Catholic Church was more interested in raising

Creationism and Darwinism Essay Example For Students

Creationism and Darwinism Essay creationism (kr-she-nzem) nounThe position that the account of the creation of the universe given at the beginning of the Bible is literally true. Creationism is the theory that man, the earth, and the rest of the universe was originally created rather than randomly exploding from nothingness into chance existence. We reside on the surface of a small superbly crafted, autonomous self regulating space vehicle. Together with survival, conquest and death we bear witness to beauty, fragrances, love and music. Think about this. Mathematics, philosophy, springtime, depravity, farming, courtship, quasars, and bubble gum; all came from nothingness?, formed by chance? Of all the generations thus far to inhabit the Earth, we have the least excuse for not recognizing the quiet presence of The Scientific Mathematician who set everything into motion around us. We should be in awe, not presumptuous and skeptical. About 3,000 years ago King David of Israel wrote (Psalm 8:3-4) When I consider Your h eavens, the work of Your fingers, the moon and the stars, which You have ordained; what is man that you are mindful of him? And the son of man, that You visit him?Creationism is the product of a literal interpretation of the Biblical story of Genesis. It holds that God created the world in a single act approximately 6,000 years ago-and that human beings, animals, and other forms of life exist today much as they did then. To many creationists, the theory of evolution is heresy. They argue that fossil records and other scientific evidence of evolution are either false or were themselves created by God. In the beginning, God created the heaven and earth.And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, let there be light: and there was light. And God saw the light, that it was good; And divided the light from darkness. And God Called the light day, and the darkness he called night . And the evening and the morning were the first day. And God said let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters. Ands God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament; And it was so. And God called the firmament heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day. And God said, let the waters under the heavens be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear, and it was so. And God called the dry land earth; and the gathering together of the waters called the seas: And God saw that it was good. And God said, let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit trees yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: And it was so. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding, fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind; and God saw that it was good. And the evening and the morning were the third day. And God said let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years. And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth; and it was so. .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 , .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .postImageUrl , .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 , .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389:hover , .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389:visited , .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389:active { border:0!important; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389:active , .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389 .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u048a0dc7f1ad3360bc7311dc03a54389:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: USACE EssayAnd God made two great lights: The greater light to rule the day and the lesser light to rule the night: He made the stars also. And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth. And to rule over the day and over the night and to divide the light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good. And the evening, and the morning were the fourth day. And God said, let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath light, and fowls that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind; and God saw that it was good. And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth. And the evening and the morning were the fifth day. And God said, let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle and creeping things, and beasts of the earth after his kind: And it was so. And God made the beasts of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and everything that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good. And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: And let them have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in His own image, in the image of God, He created him; male and female He created them. And God blessed them, and said unto them, be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over the fowl of the air and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth. And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth and every tree, in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat. And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green herb for meal; and it was so. And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day. Darwinism (drw-nzem) nounA theory of biological evolution developed by Charles Darwin and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individuals ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theorySome of the early forms of animals were poorly adapted, and their species did not survive. Eventually, the animals as we know them today were formed and survived. This preservation of favourable individual differences and variations, and the destruction of those which are injurious, I have called Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest. The Scopes Monkey TrialsThe Scopes Monkey Trial makes headlines in July as Dayton, Tenn., schoolteacher John T. Scopes, 25, goes on trial for violating a March 13 law against teaching evolution in the states public schools. Backed by the American Civil Liberties Union, Scopes has tested the law by acquainting his classes with the 1859 teachings of Charles Darwin. Defended by Chicago attorneys Clarence Darrow and Dudley Field Malone, he is prosecuted by former secretary of state William Jennings Bryan, found guilty, and fined $100. Bryan dies of apoplexy July 26. Scopes Monkey trials:Williams Jenning Bryan, three-time Democratic candidate for President and a populist, was the leading figure in a Fundamentalist crusade to banish Darwins theory of evolution from American classrooms. Clarence Darrow, who was approaching 70, decided to join the battle in Dayton. Darrow was not the first choice of the ACLU, who was concerned that Darrows zealous agnosticism might turn the trial into a broadside attack on religion. .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb , .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .postImageUrl , .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb , .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb:hover , .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb:visited , .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb:active { border:0!important; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb:active , .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ued5f76264228306c1e216635c234faeb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Anatomy Final ExamScopes (skops), John Thomas 1900-1970American teacher who violated a state law by teaching the theory of evolution in a Tennessee high school. His trial (July 1925) was a highly publicized confrontation between defense attorney Clarence Darrow and the director of the prosecution William Jennings Bryan. Scopes was found guilty and fined a nominal sum, but his conviction was later reversed on technical grounds.